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AUSTRALIA
Australia Flora Statistics (SEE)
BRAZIL
ANGIOSPERMS OF BRAZIL: A HABIT SYNOPSIS
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MONOCOTS
WINTERACEAE
Tasmannia piperita Hook.f. is a species of shrubs or treelets native to Borneo, the Philippines, Sulawesi, the Moluccas, Flores, New Guinea, and Australia, the most widespread species of Tasmannia and the only one occurring outside of Australia, and has the most variable flower discovered to date: it may have as many as fifteen petals or as few as none, as many as 109 stamens or as few as 7, and as many as fifteen carpels or as few as one (Wikipedia).
LAURACEAE
Hypodaphnis zenkeri (Engl.) Stapf from Nigeria to Congo is the only member of Lauraceae with an inferior ovary (SEE).
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IRIDACEAE
Unlike other Iridaceae, Klattia Baker (3, South Africa), Nivenia Vent. (11, South Africa) and Witsenia Thunb. (1, South Africa) are suffruticose with a more or less lignified stem base (Angios Bergianska).
Klattia, Nivenia and Witsenia, three suffruticose Iridaceae from South Africa
AMARYLLYDACEAE
Allium sect. Cepa (Amaryllidaceae) is a small group within the genus Allium L. that includes ten wild species and two economically important cultivated species, A. cepa L. (common or bulb onion) and A. fistulosum L. (bunching onion). The wild species of this section occur naturally on dry rocky slopes in mountain areas in Asia. They are characterized by a long juvenile phase (3–10 years), are morphologically variable, and sometimes resemble A. cepa. Allium altaicum Pall., the most likely progenitor of A. fistulosum, grows in southern Siberia and Mongolia. A. rhabdotum Stearn. occurs in Bhutan, A. roylei Baker. in NW India, A. asarense R.M. Fritsch et Matin in Iran, and A. farctum Wendelbo in Afghanistan and Pakistan. A. vavilovii Popov et Vved. grows in the Kopetdag Range in Turkmenistan and NE Iran. The ranges of the other species of sect. Cepa (A. galanthum Kar. et Kir., A. oschaninii O. Fedtsch., A. praemixtum Vved. and A. pskemense O.Fedtsch.) are within the Tien-Shan and Pamir-Alai mountain chains with isolated occurrences in northeastern Iran and NE Kazakhstan (Yusupov et al., Plant Diversity, 2021).
ASPHODELACEAE
Some species of Aloe (7, in Somalia, SW Arabian Peninsula, Mozambique to South Africa) and Kniphofia (71, Cameroon, Sudan to S. Africa, Madagascar, Yemen) are pachycaul shrubs or trees (Angios Bergianska).
Aloidendron in natural habitat, Africa.
ARECACEAE
Nypa fruticans Wurmb. is a mangrove, unique among Monocot lineage (Angios Bergianska).
Nypa fruticans
Hyphaene Gaertn. are unusual among palms in having regular naturally branched trunks; most other palms are single-stemmed from the ground (Angios Bergianska); this genus includes 7 spp. and it's native to over Africa (except NW and S extremes), Madagascar, Jordania to Yemen, India and Sri Lanka.
Branched Hyphaene
Lodoicea maldivica (J.F.Gmelin) Persoon, endemic to Seychelles, holds nine botanical records:
▪ it produces the largest wild fruit so far recorded, weighing up to 36 kg, and perhaps as much as 45 kg; although domesticated pumpkins and watermelons can be much heavier.
▪ the mature seeds weighing up to 17.6 kg are the world's heaviest.
▪ the seed upon germinating, produces the longest known cotyledon, up to four meters, and on occasion as long as ten meters (33 feet).
▪ it is the slowest growing of all large trees, although some small to medium-sized desert trees are slower. At the Peradenaya Royal Botanic Gardens, it grew an average of 33 mm per year over a period of 140 years.
▪ the female flowers are the largest of any palm, up to 10 cm in diameter.
▪ the male catkins, up to 2m in length, are the longest known.
▪ the sepals, which grow with the fruit, are the largest known; up to 23 centimeters long by 15 cm wide.
▪ the leaves of Lodoicea have the longest lifespan of any monocot, nine years to develop in the terminal spike, and then nine more years as a fully functioning leaf. However adult Lodoicea can have as many as twenty leaves with a potential lifespan of 24 years.
▪ finally, Lodoicea is the most efficient plant known at recovering nutrients from moribund leaves.
CYPERACEAE
Phenotypic diversity in Cyperaceae is represented among others by a wide range of growth forms, from tiny ephemerals less than 3 cm high such as Isolepis inconspicua (Levyns) J.Raynal (Cape Province, South Africa) to climbing herbs that may measure tomore than 12 m long such as Scleria boivinii Steud. (Senegal to Angola and Tanzania). There are even species with a tendency for epiphytism, such as Coleochloa domensis Muasya & D.A.Simpson from W Cameroom (Larridon et al., JSE, 2021).
Carex moorcroftii Falc. ex Boott, native from N India to NE China, has been found up to elevations of 5,700 m. (Larridon et al., JSE, 2021).
Microdracoides squamosa Hua, from Guinea, Sierra Leone, Nigeria and Cameroon, is perhaps the unique subarborescent and semiscandent member of Cyperaceae; similar looking species are the New Caledonian endemic genus Chamaedendron (Kük.) Larridon (Larridon et al., JSE, 2021).
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COSTACEAE
Costaceae has stem usually simple, but branched in Tapeinochilos Miq. (16, Maluku to N Queensland), with lateral branches penetrating leaf sheaths (Angios Bergianska).
MENISPERMACEAE
Usually evergreen lianas, or scrambling and climbing perennial herbs, rarely shrubs or trees such as Burasaia Thouars (4, Madagascar), Penianthus Miers (3, Sierra Leona to Congo), Sphenocentrum Pierre (1, Cote de Ivoire to Cameroom) and some Abuta Aubl. (34, S Mexico to S Brazil); one species of Stephania and a few species such as Cissampelos ovalifolia DC. are herbaceous (Angios Bergianska).
DILLENIACEAE
Acrotrema costatum Jack from Arunachal Pradesh to Peninsula Malaysia is possibly the single herb in Dilleniaceae (Angios Bergianska)
CRASSULACEAE
Crassula aquatica (L.) Schönland native from Artic to Costa Rica, northern Europe to Kola peninsula, and from center Asia to Japan and SE China, is one of the few aquatic species in the family (Angios Bergianska).
The highest base chromosome number known for any dicot (n = 270) belongs to Sedum suaveolens Kimnach, 1978 (SEE), endemic to Mexico.
Crassula aphylla Schönland & Baker f. from South Africa forms leafless, globular shoots reaching maturity at about 3mm; it may represent the smallest succulent plant (lack source).
Rhodiola L. subarctic & subalpine Northern Hemisphere. 3 spp. in U.S.A. and Canada.
Hylotelephium H.Ohba. One sp. from SE. Canada to NC. & E. U.S.A., also in temperate Eurasia.
Chazaroa A.Vázquez, Padilla-Lepe & Rosales. 3 spp., C & SW Mexico.
Cremnophila Rose. 3 spp., C Mexico.
Dudleya Britton & Rose. 50 spp., SW Oregon to NW Mexico. 34 spp. in Mexico.
Echeveria DC. 201 spp., S Texas to NW Argentina. 161 spp. in Mexico.
Graptopetalum Rose. 15 spp., Arizona to New Mexico and Mexico. All spp. in Mexico.
Jeronimoa A.Vázquez, Islas & Rosales. Only one sp., SW Mexico. Off Echeveria.
Lenophyllum Rose. 7 spp., Texas to NE Mexico. All spp. in Mexico.
Pachyphytum Link, Klotzsch & Otto. 25 spp., Mexico.
Quetzalcoatlia A.Vázquez, Rosales & Padilla-Lepe. 6 spp., SW Mexico.
Sedum L. Worldwide. 206 spp. in New World. 150 spp. in Mexico.
Thompsonella Britton & Rose. 8 spp., Mexico.
Villadia Rose. 25 spp., Texas to Guatemala, Peru. 22 spp. in Mexico.
HALORAGACEAE
Haloragaceae consistes for mainly by perennial or annual herbs, suffrutices or evergreen small shrubs, however Glischrocaryon Endl. from Australia consists of shrubs and small trees (Angios Bergianska).
VITACEAE
Unlike other Vitaceae, Leea D.Royen (45, Senegal to Sudan and Madagascar, Pakistan to China, up to NE Australia) consists of evergreen trees, shrubs or perennial herbs without tendrils (Angios Bergianska).
CELASTRACEAE
Unlike other Celastraceae, Stackhousia Sm. (17, Sumatra to Philippines, up to New Zealand, absent in Borneo) are usually annual or perennial herbs, sometimes succulent (Angios Bergianska).
ELATINACEAE
Bergia suffruticosa (Delile) Fenzl from Senegal to Egypt, Algeria, Congo, Kenya and Yemen, disjunct in Pakistan and India, is the unique no herb in Elatinaceae (Angios Bergianska).
ACHARIACEAE
Acharia (1, South Africa), Ceratiosicyos (1, Namibia, South Africa) and Guthriea (1, South Africa, Lesotho) are the unique herbs in Achariaceae (Angios Bergianska).
PASSIFLORACEAE
PASSIFLORACEAE Passiflora L. (Passifloraceae) is one of the most charismatic genera of angiosperms, famous due to the extreme diversity of flower shapes. It has 582 spp. in 5 subgenera, the absolute majority in the New World, more than 150 in Brazil, being strongly represented by lianas and lianesent herbs. However, the genus has arboreal species that have completely lost their lineascent habit. However, after a rigorous search on the Internet, Almanaque Z did not find an express list of trees of the genus. Here, based on some references, we seek to list all trees of the genus.
Considering Hilgenhof (Sibbaldia, 2012), who restricts arboreal forms of passionflower to section Astrophea. Wikipedia/Passiflora subg. Astrophea, who lists all the species in the group; Ocampo et al (Biota Colombiana, 2007), who discusses the arboreal forms of Colombia in a precise manner, adding P. grandis Killip to the list of trees in the genus (sect. Pseudoastrophea); however, is a smaller species, up to only 1.5m tall), Hilgenhof (Sibbaldia, 2012) again for the inclusion of P. lindeniana Planch. ex Triana & Planch as tree, despite Ocampo et al (Biota Colombiana, 2007), and Killip (Field Museum of Natural History, 1938), which describes all the Passifloraceae of the New World until then, only nine Passiflora has a true tree habit, namely:
Passiflora lindeniana Planch. ex Triana & Planch (W Venezuela to NE Colombia, up to 20m tall, SEE).
Passiflora arborea Spreng., 1826 (Panama to W Colombia, sometimes P. magnoliifolia F.Dietr., 6-10m, SEE).
Passiflora tica Gomez Laur. & L.D. Gómez, 1981 (Costa Rica to W Colombia, up to 7m tall., SEE).
Passiflora emarginata Humb. & Bonpl., 1813 (W Colombia, 3-5m, SEE).
Passiflora engleriana Harms, 1894 (NW Colombia, up to 5m, SEE).
Passiflora frutescens Ruiz & Pav. ex Killip (Peru, unknown high, SEE).
Passiflora macrophylla Spruce ex Mast., 1883 (Colombia to Ecuador, shrubby? 3-4m, SEE).
Passiflora sphaerocarpa Triana & Planch., 1873 (Colombia, 2-4m, SEE).
Passiflora grandis Killip, 1938 (NW Colombia, 1.5m high, SEE).
Outside of the Astrophea section, only P. quelchii N.E.Br. and P. spicata Mast. are not scandent (Killip, p555, 1938).
RAFFLESIACEAE
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RAFLESIACEAE FROM PHILIPPINES
EUPHORBIACEAE
Of the 246 spp. of Euphorbia from Mexico cited on February 30, 2024 in the VPA, 237 are found in the four subgenera review works, 5 were described later (E. cerrocalva, E. vizcainensis, E. zamudioi, E. breedlovei, E. cryptorubra), and 4 are unplaced.
subg. Chamaescyse ‣ 556-574 spp., 15 sections, 4 in New World, three in Mexico: sect. Alectoroctonum (115, 3 in Brazil) and Poinsettia (26, two in Brazil) from North to South America and Caribbean, and sect. Anisophyllum (368, 30 in Brazil) cosmopolitan. 199 spp. in Mexico.
sect. Anisophyllum/Acutae ‣ 106 spp. in Mexico.
sect. Anisophyllum/Hypericifoliea ‣ 3 spp., all in Mexico.
sect. Alectoroctonum ‣ 70 spp. in Mexico.
sect. Poinsettia ‣ 20 spp. in Mexico.
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subg. Esula ‣ 457 spp. in 21 sections: 13 sections exclusive from Europe to China, Thailand and Japan, India and northern Africa (149; Arvales, Biumbellatae, Calyptratae, Chylogala, Guyonianae, Herpetorrhizae, Holophyllum, Lagascae, Myrsiniteae, Pachycladae, Patellares, Sclerocyathium, Szovitsiae); sect. Aphyllis and Exiguae extends up to Africa, Madagascar and Mauritius; the monotypic sect. Lathyris is found mostly in cultivation or near human settlements, widely distributed by humans and found in temperate or subtropical regions worldwide; sect. Esula ranges up to Africa, Madagascar, Réunion, Indonesia (Java), New Zealand, and Samoa. The three New World sections all also occur in Old World.
▪ sect. Helioscopia - 26 spp. in New World, inc. three in America Latina: E. alta Norton from SW U.S.A. to NW Mexico,; E. philippiana (Klotzsch & Garcke) Boiss. from Chile; and E. spathulata Lam. disjunct from Canada to Mexico, and southern Brazil, NE Argentina and Uruguay.
▪ sect. Paralias - one sp. in New World, E. trichotoma Kunth as outlier in S Florida, SE Mexico to Belize, Bahamas, Cuba and Cayman Islands.
▪ sect. Tithymalus has with 35 spp., 7 native to and restricted to the Old World from the eastern Mediterranean region to Iran and the Arabian Peninsula, E. peplus L. presumably native to the Mediterranean region but is now widespread worldwide; the remaining species are native to the New World from United States, Canada, Mexico (18), Central America and Hispaniola.
subg. Euphorbia ‣ 661 spp. in 21 sections, 11 occur in New World, 5 in Mexico (21 spp.), two endemics and one near endemic. 15 spp. in Brazil.
sect. Tanquahuete ‣ contains two tree species that are by far the largest members of Euphorbia in the New World (up to 25m), and among the largest in the genus. E. lundelliana is poorly known, but is placed here because of its arborescent habit, leaves similar to E. tanquahuete.
sect. Calyculatae ‣ two spp., E. calyculata Kunth and E. xylopoda, trees up to 12m high, endemic to Mexico.
sect. Crepidaria ‣ 15 spp., 12 restricted to Mexico; mexican species vary in their geographical range from E. lomelii V.W.Steinm., estimated to occupy some 300 000 km² in the deserts around the Gulf of California, to the microendemic E. conzattii V.W.Steinm. with a range of 0.2 km² on a single mountaintop. Of the three species with distributions extending beyond Mexico's borders, the southernmost populations of E. calcarata (Schltdl.) V.W.Steinm. occur in northern Guatemala, whereas E. personata (Croizat) V.W.Steinm. has disjunct populations as far south as Costa Rica. Finally, E. tithymaloides L., by far the most widespread species of the clade, has a range that includes Mexico, Florida, northern South America, Central America, and most islands in the Caribbean. In addition to an unusually broad distribution, E. tithymaloides is also notable in the group for the degree of infraspecific differentiation, with eight subspecies recognized.
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sects. Mesophyllae ‣ a single spp., from Mexico (Chiapas), Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil (Acre), Bolivia.
sect. Euphorbiastrum ‣ 6 spp., Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru to S Mexico (only E. pteroneura) and Caribbean.
POLYGALACEAE
In Polygalaceae, Salomonia Lour (5, India to Japan, south up to NE Australia) comprises achlorophyllous root holoparasites and Epirixanthes (7, India to China, south up to New Guinea) comprises holomycotrophs (Angios Bergianska).
FABACEAE
Only in South America does the great genus Astragalus L. have an extensive development in the southern hemisphere. There are ten species reported from the mountains and plateaus of tropical Africa. In the temperate southern parts of that continent the genus is represented only by one species up to South Africa. In South America, however, there are nearly ninety species. The genus is represented long cordillera from Ecuador to the Straits of Magellan, one species up to S Brazil, and has two important centers of speciation, one in the high country of NW Argentina and adjacent Bolivia and another in adjoining Chile and Argentina along the cordilleras south of the peak of Aconcagua.
In Brazil, A. distinens Macloskie was collected in some places at W & C Rio Grande do Sul state, along rivers and sand outcrops; possibly records also found in center state, near Santa Maria municipality.
BRAZIL. Rio Grande do Sul: Uruguaiana, near Arroio Grande, irregular field cut by highway, 18 Mar 1984, Pedersen 13845 (C!); Santa Maria, 8 Oct 1892, Malme 172B (S!); Viamão, Parque Saint-Hilaire, 13 Feb 1956, Mattos 3564(HAS!), 3578 (HAS!); Viamão, Parque Saint-Hilaire, 16 Dec 2002, Lopes & Paula 151 (RFA!). URUGUAY. Río Negro. Playa Ubisi al N de Fray Bentos, 22-12-1965. (fl-fr), Del Puerto & Marchesi 5685 (MVFA). Colonia. Alrededores de Colonia, sobre costa Río de la Plata, 24-2-1962 (fr), Del Puerto & Brescia 1488 (MVFA). Montevideo. Parque Lecoq, 16-10-1949 (fl-fr), Rosengurt B-5718(MVFA); 14-11-1970 (fl-fr), Izaguirre & Laguardia 9847 (MVFA); “Barranca arcillosa”, 21-11-1962 (fl-fr), Del Puerto 2237 (MVFA).
MORACEAE
Fatoua Gaudich. (3, Madagascar, Japan to Jawa and New Caledonia) are annual herbs (Angios Bergianska).
URTICACEAE
For cave plants, a remarkable work via Konno et al (Plos One, 2018) deals with their diversity in caves in southern China; the Yangzi Cave is the type locality for 8 plants! Pilea cavernicola A.K. Monro, C.J. Chen & Y.G. Wei (Urticaceae) grows in almost complete darkness, receiving less than 3% of full sunlight (Alex K. Monro et al., PhytoKeys, 2012), being the most shaddy plant worldwide.
CUCURBITACEAE
Dendrosicyos socotranus Balf.f., endemic to the island of Socotra in Yemen, is the only species in the Cucurbitaceae to grow in a tree form.
Dendrosicyos socotranus Balf.f. in Socotra
BEGONIACEAE
Begonia giganticaulis D.K.Tian & W.G.Wang from Tibet region in China is the largest Begonia worldwide (PhytoKeys, 2021).
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GERANIACEAE
Geraniaceae are usually perennial or annual herbs, sometimes suffrutices or shrubs; in Geranium section Neurophyllodes (4) from Hawaii are trees (Angios Bergianska).
SAPINDACEAE
Herbs in Sapindaceae occur only in Cardiospermum L. (9, cosmopolitan), mainly in New World (Angios Bergianska).
MELIACEAE
Unlike the predominat trees and shrubs in Meliaceae, Munronia (8, India to E China, up to peninsular Malaysia, Philippines, and from Java to Timor) are suffrutices, and Naregamia (1, India) are perennial herbs (Angios Bergianska)
BRASSICACEAE
Heliophila (96 spp.), and Chamira are endemic to the Cape region of South Africa, where they are the dominant genera of Brassicaceae. They may be regarded as the most diversified Brassicaceae lineage in every aspect of habit, leaf, flower, and fruit morphology. It has flowers with enormous diversity in size ranging from the largest in the family (petals to 25 mm long in Brachycarpaea juncea and Cycloptychis virgata) to nearly the smallest (petals ca. 1.2 mm long in Heliophila pectinata). Heliophila has a wide range of flower color, including blue, a color otherwise known in Brassicaceae only in the unrelated Himalayan Solms-laubachia Muschl. (Al-Shehbaz & Yang, 2001). Furthermore, the flowers usually have appendages on the basal portions of petals and/or staminal filaments. Several species (e.g., H. africana) produce beaked fruits similar to those of the tribe Brassiceae, whereas others have siliques more than 12 cm long (e.g., H. scoparia) or minute silicles only about 2 mm in diameter (e.g., H. patens). Fruit shape is quite variable (linear, lanceolate, oblong, elliptic, ovoid, or globose), whereas fruit compression in Heliophila varies from latiseptate (flattened parallel to the septum) to terete, and in Brachycarpaea it is angustiseptate (fruit flattened at a right angle to the septum) (Figs. 1, 2). Fruits may be dehiscent (Heliophila), indehiscent and woody (Silicularia), samaroid (Thlaspeocarpa), or even schizocarpic and with a distinct (Cycloptychis) or rudimentary carpophore (Brachycarpaea). These fruit characters (e.g., silique versus silicle, dehiscent vs. indehiscent, latiseptate vs. angustiseptate), which are used in the separation of species and genera within Heliophileae, have been used extensively in the delimitation of tribes (see Al-Shehbaz, 1984). Within Heliophila one finds ephemeral to perennial herbs, shrubs, and lianas to 3 m tall (H. scandens). Apart from previous controversial classification systems discussed by Appel and Al-Shehbaz (1997), nothing is known about the phylogenetic relationships within the Heliophileae (Mummenhoff, Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 2005).
LORANTHACEAE
Atkinsonia F.Muell. (1, SE Australia), Gaiadendron (2, Nicaragua to Bolivia and Brazil) and Nuytsia (1, W Australia) are the unique root parasitic trees in Loranthaceae (Angios Bergianska).
Odd plants in New World after South America includes Psittacanthus nuda from Honduras.
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SANTALACEAE
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SCHOEPFIACEAE
Quinchamalium Molina (1, Peru, Bolivia, Chile and Argentina) is the unique herb in Schoepfiaceae (Angios Bergianska).
AIZOACEAE
The radiation of the Aizoaceae (144/c. 1,680 spp.), specifically the subfamily Ruschioideae, was one of the most recent among the angiosperms, occurring 1.13-6.49 Mya. It is also one of the fastest radiations ever described in the angiosperms, with a diversification rate of about 4.4 species per million years; this diversification was roughly contemporaneous with major radiations in two other succulent lineages, Cactaceae and Agave.
The two basal groups, Sesuvioideae and Aizooideae, includes (11/)163 spp. widely worldwide. Acrosanthoideae, Mesembryanthemoideae and Ruschioideae subfamilies includes (11/)1,511-1,531 spp., all confined to Africa except Disphyma N.E.Br. (4, Western and Eastern Cape, southern Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand), Delosperma N.E.Br. (170, South Africa to eastern Africa and Arabian Peninsula, Madagascar, Réunion), and Carpobrotus N.E.Br. (13; S Africa, Australia, South America).
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CARYOPHYLLACEAE
Eremogone bryophylla (Fernald) Pusalkar & D.K.Singh from Himalaya of China, Tibet, Nepal, and India is the highest known flowering plant, occurring as high as 6,180 metres (Wikipedia).
EREMEGONE BRYOPHILA
PORTULACACEAE
Portulaca suffrutescens Engelm. from Arizona to C Mexico somewhat has lignified at stem base, unique among this genus (Angios Bergianska).
CACTACEAE
Cochemiea dioica (K.Brandegee) Doweld (〜Mammillaria dioica, California to Mexico) and ✕ Aporberocereus innesii (Kimnach) Doweld (〜Selenicereus innesii, only cultivation) are the unique functionally dioecious among all Cactaceae (Angios Bergianska).
CORNACEAE
Besides the main habit in Cornaceae as trees or shrubs, Cornus suecica L. (Canada, Alaska, N Europe to W Siberia, NE Asia) and C. canadensis L. (Artic to Arizona, NE Asia, Myanmar) are stoloniferous perennial herbs or suffrutices (Angios Bergianska).
POLEMONIACEAE
Cantua Juss. ex. Lam. (16, Ecuador to Bolivia) is the most proeminet member of Polemoniacae in habit, being small trees in some species (Angios Bergianska).
LECYTHIDACEAE
The unique Lecythidaceae apart tree ou shrubyy habit are some Napoleonaea (17, Guinea to Zambia), with suffrutex or vine habit (Prance & Jongkind, Kew Bulletin, 2015).
RUBIACEAE
Hydnophytum Jack (54, Myanmar to NE Australia), Myrmecodia Jack (26, Vietnan to NE Australia), Myrmeconauclea Merr. (4, Borneo to Philippines), Myrmephytum Becc. (5, Philippines, Sulawesi, New Guinea), etc. are epiphytic or (Myrmeconauclea) rheophytic myrmecophytes (ant plants), in the hollow swollen stems and branches – hypocotylar bases – of which ant colonies live (Angios Bergianska).
GENTIANACEAE
Lisianthus nigrescens, Lagenanhtus princeps
APOCYNACEAE
Dischidia major (Vahl) Merr. (Bangladesh to Philippines, up to NE Australia) are myrmecotrophic with ant colonies present in leaves (Angios Bergianska).
SUCCULENT STAPELIOID RADIATION ‣ besides many lienages of succulents in Apocynaceae outside Stepliids, this groups is the very charismaticous and emblematic; recent phylogenetic reconstructions in the Ceropegieae show that the 357 species of highly succulent stapeliads and four lineages of the 141 species of BrachystelmaR.Br. ex Sims are nested within the 219 species of CeropegiaL.; thus, Ceropegia has 717 spp. in Macaronesia, widespread in Africa, S Europe, Arabian Peninsula, S Iran, Afghanistan to SE Asia, Himalaya to China to N Australia, Madagascar, found as slender climbers in forest-margins, in semi-arid places under or climbing on protective shrubs or in the open in semi-arid to arid habitats (Bruys et al., South African Journal of Botany, 2017).
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Stapeliids s.s. occur Tanzania and Kenya to southern Arabian Peninsula (and Socotra), east up to Sahel, and up South Africa in southern region, with sect. Apteranthes also in Macaronesia, in the Mediterranean region of Africa and southern Europe to the Arabian Peninsula, Iran, Afghanistan, Pakistan; sect. Caudanthera up to Pakistan; sect. Boucerosia up to India, western Nepal and Myanmar; sect. Frerea endemic to India; and sect. Stapelianthus endemic to Madagascar. Clade B has 201 spp. from South Africa to W and NE Africa, two species are found in the southern Arabian Peninsula, with two species that occur both on Madagascar and in Africa (C. ampliata E. Mey. and C. carnosa E. Mey.). No species are known from SE Asia in Clade B.
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CONVOLVULACEAE
By consulting Wood et al. (PhytoKeys, 2020), it was possible to define, as a preliminary, a list of forms of Ipomoea that are tree-like.
Ipomoea arborescens (Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.) G. Don - up to 15m tall, dry forest and scrub, mostly below 1000 m in western and central Mexico.
Ipomoea murucoides Roem. & Schult. - up to 13m tall., dry scrub and open deciduous woodland from 600 to 2400 m from central Mexico south to Guatemala.
Ipomoea wolcottiana Rose, Gard. & Forest - up to 13 m, dry, deciduous forest in scattered disjunct locations from Peru through Central America to southern Mexico at relatively low altitudes of 50–900 m.
Ipomoea intrapilosa Rose, Gard. & Forest - up to 10m, endemic to dry scrub in central Mexico, mostly found in Jalisco but also reported from Zacatecas, Nayarit and Michoacán.
Ipomoea pauciflora M. Martens & Galeotti - up to 7m tall., seasonally dry deciduous woodland mostly between 1000 and 2600 m from S Mexico to S Peru.
Ipomoea teotitlanica McPherson - up to 5m tall., endemic to Oaxaca and neighbouring Puebla in Mexico, recorded as growing on steep sandstone slopes.
CORDIACEAE
Coldenia procubens L, the single member of their genus, widely from Mauritania to Australia, Pakistan to South Africa, is the unique herb in Cordiaceae (Angios Bergianska).
GESNERIACEAE
The flowers and fruits of Besleria macropoda appear to arise directly from the center of the leaf blade (fig. 2), much like the epiphyllous flowers of Helwingia Willdenow (1806: 716–717; Helwingiaceae) and some other angiosperm taxa of various families (see below). However, closer inspection shows that the peduncle is not adnate to the midrib of the leaf. It is principally free, but clamped over its entire length in a channel formed by the sunken midrib of the leaf blade. In addition, the basalmost part of the peduncle is somewhat hidden from view by the wrinkled leaf base. We refer to this phenomenon as “functional epiphylly” because there is no adnation to the leaf blade (SEE).
Besleria macropoda, epiphyllous position of flowers and fruits
LINDERNIACEAE
Lindernia intrepida (Dinter ex Heil) Oberm. (= Chamaegigas intrepidus Dinter) from Namibia is poikilohydric aquatic resurrection plant (Angios Bergianska).
Possibly one carnivorous species in Mozambique, Crepidorhopalon droseroides
BIGNONIACEAE
Despite the trees, shrubs or lianas habit of Bignoniaceae, Argylia D. Don. (13, Argentina, Chile, one up to Peru), Incarvillea (18, Kazakhsthan to China, Pakistan to SE Russia, inc. Niedzwedzkia) are perennial herbs, and Tourrettia Foug. (1, Mexico to Bolivia, east up to Venezuela, and Argentina) consists of twining perennial herbs (Angios Bergianska).
ESCALLOANIACEAE
Escalloniaceae are usually evergreen trees and shrubs, however Valdivia gayana J. Rémy (Chile) is a small shrub, Tribeles australis Phil. (Argentina and Chile) is a low procumbent and creeping shrub, and Eremosyne pectinata Endl. (Australia) is an annual herb (Angios Bergianska).
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ASTERACEAE
Dendrosenecio (Hauman ex Hedberg) B.Nord., 12 spp., from R.D.Congo, Uganda, Kenya, Tanzania and Rwanda.
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Fabaceae and Bromeliaceae were classically divided into three groups, and phylogenetic advances have shown that exactly one of each, Caesalpinioideae and Pitcairnioideae, were polyphyletic, with the remaining two clades in each embedded in a polytomy.
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THE MOST COMMON PLANT ARCHITETURES: leafy trees (huge branched, pandaniformes, dracaeniformes), succulent trees (cactiformes), bambusoids, sucullent herbs (rhomboid cacti, discoid cacti, crassuloids, anacampserotoids), shrubs (comoon, spiny xeric, lax sprawling, paramic caulirosulas), herbs (grasses, juncoids, soil/rocky foresty herbs, alpine nanoherbs, prostrate gnaphalioids, incrustrants, submerged latifolious, agavoids closed, agavoid lax, xeric lax, delicate mycoheterotrophics, balanophoroids and alies, massive bloom desert and fynbos formation), palmoids (tiny cyclantoid, monopodial, rattan, branched), epiphtyic/lithophytes (pendulous, delicate rosettes in barks, tank bromeliids, rosette agavoids, cliff branched litophytes, cliff tillandsioids), lianes (woody, delicate, bauhinioids), cushions (lax, dense, rosettes), tall monopodious herbs (marantoid, zingiberoid, cannoid, musoid, huge aroids), aquatic plants (floating leaves, capilloides, podostemoids, herbal traditional).
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Old World is the centre of diversity of geocarpic ones, rheophytic Araceae, dissecation family-lineages, rattans (Arecaceae), mangroves and colorful nectaries. In mangroves, 54 spp. are true members, 8 in New World and 47 in Old World; 11 families has mangroves only in Old World (Wikipedia); geocarpy occur in 34 families, only 5 in New World (SAa); of 70 spp. with color nectar in World, only 16 occur in New World (SAa).
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PANTROPICAL PLANTS - Ipomoea violacea L. (MAP)
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HOLOMYCOTROPHICS
In Monocots except Orchidaceae, mycothophs genera outside South America includes Petrosavia (3, Petrosaviaceae, E Asia), Afrothismia (), Haplothismia (), Oxygine (), Kihansia (), Kupea (), Seychellaria (), Hyalisma (), Andruris (), Corsia (), Corsiopsis (), and Geosiris (2, Australia and Madagascar).
In Orchidaceae, after South America, all holomycotroph Vanilloid members occur in 5 genera of mycotrophs occur in E Asia to Japan and Australia (44 spp., Cyrtosia, Eryhtroches, Galeola, Lecanorchis, Pseudovanilla), some into Madagascar; in Orchidioideae + Epidendroideae, members with locally distribution occur from E Asia to Australia (22/75), Africa to Madagascar (2/5), plus Cephalanthera (6 holomycotrophs, 1 in North America, 5 in E Asia), Corallorhiza (5 holomycotrophs, from North to Cental America), Didymoplexis (12, Africa to Asia), Epipogonium (3, Eurasia and Africa to Pacific), Eulophia (17, Africa to Pacific), Gastrodia (22, widely in Old World), Hexalectris (6, U.S.A. to Mexico), Limodorum (3, Mediterranean Basin), and Neottia (14, northern Hemisphere). Only three occur in New World (Corallorhiza, Cephalanthera, Hexalectris).
Among Eudicots, mycotrophs occur Epirixanthes (6, Polygalaceae, tropical Asia, including India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, China, and the Solomon Islands), 10 genera of Ericaceae: Cheilotheca (3, Asia), Hemitomes (1, W North America), Hypopitys (1, widely in northern Hemisphere up to Central America), Monotropastrum (2, E Asia), Monotropsis (2, E Asia), Pityopus (1, W North America), Pleuricospora (1, W North America), Pterospora (1, U.S.A. to Mexico), Pyrola (only P. aphylla, Canada to Mexico) and Sarcodes (1, W North America); Exacum (4, Himalayas throughout Southeast Asia to New Guinea) and Exochaenium (1, tropical Africa).
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SANTALALES Isophasic parasitis is very rare, a feature that, in Santalales, is only known for in several species of Arceuthobium (North American A. americanum Nutt. ex Engelm., A. douglasii Engelm., and A. pusillum Peck, and the Himalayan A. minutissimum Hook.), but only on their most common hosts trees, in Phoradendron perredactum Rzedowski & Calderón, from Mexico (Kuijt, Acta Botanica Mexicana , 2011), and in Tristerix aphyllus in South America.
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CARNIVOROUS ‣ considering the genera of carnivorous plants that do not occur in South America, all are geographically disjoint except Darlingtonia × Triantha in W U.S.A., Dionaea × Sarracenia in E U.S.A., Triphyophyllum × Aldrovanda in W Africa, Nepenthes × Byblis and Aldrovanda × Byblis in N Australia and southern New Guinea, and Cephalotus × Byblis × Aldrovanda in SW Australia.
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PARASITAXUS USTUS
A group of researchers has been carrying out expeditions since August 2019 in search of the giant trees of the Amazon. The research project is funded by the Iratapuru Fund and the UEAP Fund, under the coordination of the Federal Institute of Amapá, Campus Laranjal do Jari ().
Prior to 2009 reports of giant trees in the Amazon were sparse and fragmented; consistent surveys based on this one were able to detect for the first time documented trees above 70m. (Gorgens, Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment, 2019). Analysis of 594 airborne laser transects (375 ha each) obtained from airborne laser scanning (ALS) surveys conducted within the Amazon basin led to the discovery of a tree with a height of 88.5 m. It is surrounded by seven other trees taller than 80 m and many more above 75 m.
In the first expedition, which took place in August 2019, Brazilian and British researchers located the largest tree in the Amazon, 88 meters high. The specimen, located in the Paru State Forest, located in the state of Pará, in the Calha Norte of the Amazon River, is of the species Dinizia excelsa, popularly known as red angelim, and is 5.5 meters in circumference.
In the second expedition, which took place in January 2021, the largest chestnut tree (Berthollhetia excelsa) ever recorded in the Amazon was found, with 66.66 meters in height, also located on the RDS of the Iratapuru River. Another red angelim measuring 79.19 meters in height and 6.8 meters in diameter was also found at the time.
The third expedition took place in September 2021 in the municipality of Porto Grande, in the region of the Cupixi River, on the limits of the State Forest of Amapá. The researchers found another red angelim 85.44 meters tall and with a circumference of 9.45 meters. This tree found is considered the second largest in the Amazon region visited in loco and the largest tree ever recorded in the state of Amapá.
The project intends to map a total of 7 trees larger than 80 meters. The next expedition will take place from the 5th to the 7th of November, in the Agroextractive Settlement on the Maracá River, and intends to map a tree 83.44 meters high.
Trees exceeded 50 m in height across many parts of the Brazilian Amazon, but trees over 80 m were only observed in the eastern Amazon (micro-region III, Roraima Province/(Gorgens et al., Global Change Biology/Pre-print, 2021)).
Maps of the Brazilian Amazon showing the location of trees > 50 m, > 60 m, > 70 m, and > 80 m in height (Gorgens et al., Global Change Biology/Pre-print, 2021).
Maximum tree height distribution when FAPAR values under 80% were excluded from analysis (Gorgens et al., Global Change Biology/Pre-print, 2021).
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